Scholars widely acknowledge Jesus as a historical figure, yet discussions surrounding his life and the languages he spoke continue to fascinate and sometimes spark debate. The question of Jesus’s language gained public attention in 2014 when Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Pope Francis engaged in a memorable exchange during a meeting in Jerusalem. Netanyahu asserted that Jesus spoke Hebrew, while Pope Francis corrected him, stating it was Aramaic. While news outlets highlighted this linguistic disagreement, the reality, as historians and religious scholars suggest, is more nuanced: Jesus was likely multilingual.
The Aramaic of Daily Life
The consensus among most religious scholars and historians aligns with Pope Francis’s view: Jesus primarily spoke a Galilean dialect of Aramaic. By the first century A.D., Aramaic had become the lingua franca of the Middle East, largely due to trade, invasions, and conquests dating back to the 7th century B.C. For ordinary Jewish people in Judea during Jesus’s time, Aramaic was the most common language used in everyday interactions. It is highly probable that Jesus and his disciples communicated in Aramaic in their daily lives and ministry.
Alt text: Close-up of the Aramaic inscription on the James Ossuary, a burial box potentially linked to James, brother of Jesus, highlighting the prevalence of Aramaic during the first century A.D.
Hebrew: The Language of Scripture and Religion
Prime Minister Netanyahu was also partially correct. Hebrew, sharing linguistic roots with Aramaic, held a significant place in first-century Judea. Similar to Latin in later European history, Hebrew served as the language of religious scholars and sacred scriptures, including the Bible (though parts of the Old Testament were originally written in Aramaic). While Aramaic was the vernacular, Hebrew was preserved for religious contexts, study, and prayer. It is highly likely Jesus understood Hebrew, as evidenced in the Gospel of Luke, where he is depicted reading from the Hebrew Bible in a synagogue (Luke 4:16). Although his daily life unfolded in Aramaic, Hebrew remained a vital language within his cultural and religious milieu.
Greek: The Influence of Hellenistic Culture
Beyond Aramaic and Hebrew, Greek also permeated the linguistic landscape of Judea during Jesus’s era. Alexander the Great’s conquests in the 4th century B.C. brought Greek influence to Mesopotamia and the wider Persian Empire. Subsequently, Greek gained prominence as the official language across much of the region. By the first century A.D., Judea was integrated into the eastern Roman Empire, which further solidified Greek’s status as a lingua franca. While Latin was reserved for Roman legal and military affairs, Greek facilitated broader communication and commerce.
Alt text: Marble bust of Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king whose conquests led to the widespread adoption of Greek language and culture in the ancient world, impacting the linguistic environment of Jesus’s time.
While scholars like Jonathan Katz from Oxford University suggest Jesus likely had limited Latin proficiency, his knowledge of Greek is more probable, albeit perhaps not fluent. Greek, however, was not the primary language of communication with his immediate followers and the common people he interacted with daily.
A Multilingual Jesus
In conclusion, determining “What Language Did Jesus Speak” is not a simple matter of choosing between Hebrew and Aramaic. The historical and linguistic evidence points towards Jesus being multilingual. His everyday language was undoubtedly Aramaic, the vernacular of Galilee. He also possessed knowledge of Hebrew, the language of his religious tradition and scriptures. Furthermore, the pervasive influence of Greek in the Roman Empire suggests he likely had some familiarity with this language as well. Similar to many individuals in multilingual societies, Jesus’s choice of language would have been context-dependent, varying with his audience and the situation. This multilingual reality enriches our understanding of Jesus within the complex linguistic and cultural tapestry of first-century Judea.
