Calvinism, at its core, is a comprehensive religious tradition emphasizing God’s sovereignty, not just a denomination or a system of doctrine. This tradition believes in God’s leadership in the church and anticipates social change through proper teaching and discipline. Need a quick, reliable explanation? WHAT.EDU.VN offers comprehensive resources to deepen your understanding of theological concepts and historical contexts. Explore key terms, historical figures, and doctrinal distinctions.
1. Defining “Calvinism”: An Overview
The term “Calvinist” wasn’t initially embraced by those now considered Calvinists. John Calvin himself never aimed to create a unique theological system, nor did he define “Calvinism.” Scholars agree that there isn’t a single doctrine that Calvin used to organize his theology. In fact, none of Calvin’s direct students identified as belonging to a “Calvinist” school of thought.
The term “Calvinist” originated as a derogatory label used by Lutheran theologians during debates about the Lord’s Supper. William Perkins, a renowned English Reformed theologian in 1592, deemed it inappropriate to adopt the name “Calvinist.” Even in 19th-century America, Robert L. Dabney, a Southern Presbyterian, stated, “We Presbyterians care very little about the name Calvinism.” Many contemporary scholars of John Calvin and Reformed theology actually discourage its use in academic contexts.
Given this historical context, there’s no universally accepted standard for defining “Calvinism.” Unlike “Lutheranism,” no churches or denominations identify as “The Calvinist Church.” While terms like “hyper-Calvinism” and “moderate Calvinism” exist, there’s no singular Calvinist confession of faith, leading to ongoing debates about what constitutes “true Calvinism.”
Both paedobaptists (those who practice infant baptism) and credobaptists (those who believe in believer’s baptism) identify as “Calvinists.” Presbyterians and congregationalists use the term. Even some Anglicans consider themselves Calvinistic. Calvinism has also gained popularity among some North American evangelicals who also embrace charismatic gifts, contemporary worship styles, and modern perspectives on arts and culture.
Therefore, rather than seeking a single defining idea, it’s more accurate to understand Calvinism as a collection of shared theological concepts, views on church organization and governance, and expectations regarding Christian living and societal transformation.
2. Calvinism vs. Reformed Theology: Untangling the Terms
It’s often said that Calvinism and Reformed theology are synonymous. Reformed theology is one of the two major branches of traditional Protestant Christianity stemming from the 16th-century Reformation, the other being Lutheranism. Ulrich Zwingli is frequently cited as the founder of Reformed theology, but the reality is more complex. While Zwingli was a key leader and innovator, a network of sympathetic clerics and theologians collaborated to shape what we know as Reformed theology. However, John Calvin undoubtedly belongs to the second generation of Reformed thinkers. After fleeing France, Calvin found established Reformed churches and communities in both Switzerland and Strasbourg.
Equating “Calvinism” with Reformed theology is problematic because the latter is more closely tied to specific churches and confessions of faith. Certain views on divine covenants and infant baptism are typically considered central to Reformed theology. In contrast, “Calvinism” is often applied to groups with differing views on these doctrines.
Adding another layer of complexity, many Anglicans readily accept the “Reformed” label but avoid being called “Calvinist.” Due to disputes over church governance, liturgy, vestments, holidays, and revolution, many Anglicans associate Calvinism with the Puritan movement. So, while connecting Calvinism and Reformed theology is understandable, the terms have distinct connotations. Reformed theology is associated with confessions of faith and formal church bodies, while Calvinism is more of a collection of ideas, priorities, and social movements.
3. Predestination and God’s Glory: Central Themes in Calvinism
The most common definition of Calvinism revolves around the doctrines of predestination and divine election in salvation. This is often seen as a unique theological system linked to the 1619 Synod of Dort. While the Synod of Dort was an important international gathering, its authority was geographically limited. It also had a specific, narrow focus, not aiming to explain an entire theological system. Instead, it addressed five theological points raised by the students of Jacob Arminius, which led to the formulation of the Five Points of Calvinism (explained below).
However, the Synod of Dort must be viewed within a broader historical context. Calvinist theologians existed long before Dort. John Calvin died in 1564, the Heidelberg Catechism was published in 1563, and the English Lambeth Articles, often described as Calvinistic, were released in 1595. Many Calvinistic groups have never formally adopted the canons of Dort. The Westminster Confession of Faith has had a greater and more direct impact on Calvinism in English-speaking countries. Although drafted after the Synod of Dort, its chapter on predestination closely resembles the Irish Articles, published four years before Dort. Therefore, while the organization of Calvinism into five points originated with the Synod of Dort, the broader concept of Calvinism is older and more expansive.
John Calvin wrote extensively on predestination and election in his Institutes of the Christian Religion and in his debates with Albert Pighius on free will and eternal predestination. Several of Calvin’s students and successors continued to explore these themes, including Theodore Beza and Girolamo Zanchi. Although Calvin never presented these doctrines as central, critics began attacking them as “Calvinism.” When Charles Spurgeon defended “Calvinism” in the mid-19th century, he was referring to the doctrines of predestination and divine election.
B.B. Warfield, a prominent early 20th-century American Presbyterian theologian, argued that Calvinism shouldn’t be reduced solely to predestination. He wrote that “The doctrine of predestination is not the formative principle of Calvinism.” Instead, Warfield saw Calvinism as “an overwhelming vision of God… a complete world-view, in which [salvation] becomes subsidiary to the glory of the Lord God Almighty.” For Warfield, this “world-view” leads to “a particular theology,” “a special church organization,” and even “a social order.” This understanding of Calvinism became prevalent in the late 19th and 20th centuries, echoed by the Neo-Calvinist school of theology, represented by Abraham Kuyper and Herman Bavinck, as well as liberal “mainline” Calvinist figures.
4. The Calvinistic Perspective on the Church
Historically, Calvinism has distinguished itself through its unique view of the church. Calvinists believe the church is a divine creation, independent of human will, tradition, or civil rulers. This belief led to a specific understanding of church government and polity. Calvinists generally opposed bishops and favored lay elders. They also advocated for the church’s ministry to have significant independence from the civil government, not necessarily a complete separation of church and state in the modern sense, but often meaning that pastors saw themselves as prophetic critics of political leaders. Calvinism also tended to support the right to resist and even revolt against tyrannical governments, all grounded in the concept of divine sovereignty. Quoting Acts 5:29, Calvinists would assert, “We ought to obey God rather than men.”
This aspect of Calvinism is complex because John Calvin himself didn’t teach all of it. While he supported lay elders and defended the clergy’s right to excommunicate, he didn’t believe the Bible prescribed every detail of church governance. He wrote, “For we know that every Church has liberty to frame for itself a form of government that is suitable and profitable for it, because the Lord has not prescribed anything definite.” Calvin also limited the right of resistance to lesser magistrates, believing that private citizens shouldn’t rebel against their political leaders.
Nevertheless, the emphasis on divine church government quickly became associated with Calvinism. Richard Hooker, in his critique of stricter Puritans, noted that they had elevated Calvin’s books to “almost the very canon to judge both doctrine and discipline.” Scottish Presbyterians echoed these arguments, especially in their conflicts with King James. French Huguenots, also considered “Calvinist,” promoted a particular resistance theory that influenced later political movements. Some American founding fathers, even if not personally orthodox Christians, drew upon this Calvinistic heritage.
Critics of Calvinism have accused this view of government of being separatist, oppositional, and prone to rebellion. Supporters argue that it safeguards the church’s liberty and the Christian conscience, and that it places the church’s teaching ministry in a position of significant social influence.
5. Calvinism, Society, and Culture: A Transformative Vision
A defining feature of Calvinism has been its social activism and commitment to applying religious convictions to daily life, most famously associated with Abraham Kuyper. Kuyper wrote that “Calvinism made its appearance, not merely to create a different Church-form, but an entirely different form for human life, to furnish human society with a different method of existence, and to populate the world of the human heart with different ideals and conceptions.” Kuyper argued that Calvinism represented its own distinct “science” and “life-system,” a view that has been criticized by later scholars. Yet, Kuyper’s influence was immense. Inspired by him, 20th-century Calvinists formed new political movements, founded schools, and advocated for a wide range of social issues.
Kuyper wasn’t the first Calvinist to find a basis for activism in theology. In 1633, the English poet George Herbert wrote:
Nothing can be so mean,
Which with his tincture (for thy sake)
Will not grow bright and clean.
A servant with this clause
Makes drudgery divine:
Who sweeps a room as for Thy laws,
Makes that and th’ action fine.
Herbert describes how understanding God’s principles and laws transforms the perception and meaning of even the most humble tasks.
This activistic impulse in Calvinism is what sociologist Max Weber explored in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. When Weber referred to “Protestants,” he primarily meant Calvinists. Calvinists were also central to the 18th and 19th-century “evangelical” movement, which emphasized social activism and reform. In 2014, John Piper described “the New Calvinism” as being “culture-affirming” and as promoting “missional impact on social evils.”
This vision of Calvinism transforming society and culture is widely debated, with many scholars questioning whether it can be legitimately attributed to John Calvin or Reformed theology. But the connection persists. Despite its complexities, there seems to be a common thread linking Calvin’s leadership in Geneva, the English Puritans, American evangelicals, and Dutch Neo-Calvinists. Often, when Reformed thinkers reject the label “Calvinistic,” it’s this particular aspect they wish to distance themselves from.
6. The Theology of Calvinism: Key Doctrines
The most common understanding of Calvinism is doctrinal. A Calvinistic theologian is someone who promotes the doctrines of predestination and divine election. But we need to be careful with this understanding. Predestination and election were central themes in the fourth-century church theologian Augustine of Hippo. They show up in medieval theologians like Anselm of Canterbury (11th cent.), Thomas Aquinas (13th cent.), and Thomas Bradwardine (14th cent.). Before John Calvin, both Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli taught predestination and election. When people mean Calvinism, they mean a specific presentation and emphasis, as well as certain particular points about fore-ordination to salvation and damnation, as well as the nature and extent of the saving death of Christ.
6.1. Key Doctrinal Terms Explained
In discussions about Calvinism, defining and distinguishing key terms is essential. Predestination isn’t simply the idea that God knows all things. Theologians refer to that concept as divine foreknowledge or prescience. All orthodox Christians believe in divine foreknowledge. “Even before a word is on my tongue, behold, O Lord, you know it altogether” (Psalm 139:4). A similar doctrine is divine providence, which means that God not only knows all things but actively governs them.
- “Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? And not one of them will fall to the ground apart from your Father.” (Matthew 10:29)
- “And we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” (Romans 8:28)
Again, all orthodox Christians affirm divine providence.
Predestination is closely related to questions of free will, but predestination does not necessarily mean that humans lack free will. In fact, the Westminster Confession of Faith teaches,
God, from all eternity, did, by the most wise and holy counsel of his own will, freely, and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass: yet so, as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures; nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established. (WCF 3.1)
Calvinists believe that before Adam’s fall into sin, mankind had a free will and was able to choose the good. Free will has been lost because of sin, not because of divine sovereignty. “Those who are in the flesh cannot please God” (Romans 8:8).
The loss of free will due to sin was taught by Augustine of Hippo and was a common doctrine in the Western Christian church until the time of the Reformation. Luther emphasized it strongly, and the doctrine is taught by the Lutheran Confessions (Augsburg Confession, ch. 18; The Formula of Concord, ch. 2). All Reformed confessions of faith teach it as well. The Calvinist view of free will is not unique. It is the common position of Lutheran and Reformed theologians.
Calvinism becomes distinctive on the topic of predestination. Predestination is the doctrine that God destines some people to believe in him, be saved, and thus spend eternity with him in blessing. Election is closely connected to this. Election is the doctrine that God chose (elected) some men to be saved.
For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified. (Romans 8:29–30)
The specific affirmation of Calvinism is that God does not elect any to be saved based upon his foreknowledge of their faith and repentance, or any other good works, but rather entirely out of his (God’s) free will. This number is fixed and cannot change. Every other act of salvation, then, flows from this divine choice and is dependent on it.
For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast. (Ephesians 2:8–9)
Lutherans agree with Calvinists about the positive affirmation of election (cf. Epitome of the Formula Concord 11.15; Solid Declaration of the Formula Concord 11.5). Where Calvinism becomes unique from Lutheranism is in its statements about reprobation, God’s choice not to elect some; and in its denial that the elect can ever fall away from justifying faith. Calvinists argue that God is active in this choice. Calvinists maintain that God does not simply predestine any person’s damnation without a basis in their own sin. But Calvinists also argue that God is active in his divine willing to either not grant the reprobate the conditions for salvation in the first place (they are not exposed to the gospel), or to not give them active faith in the gospel when it is presented. Calvinists argue that the reason for God’s decision is a mystery. They also affirm the role of secondary and intermediate causes. Believers are condemned for their own sin and their rejection of the gospel. But Calvinists maintain that the first cause, the cause behind all secondary causes, is always God. They also point to this same doctrine as the reason why true believers can never fall away. Though believers must persevere over time, God’s election will ensure that they do.
6.2. The Five Points of Calvinism: TULIP
This teaching of divine predestination became controversial in both Britain and Holland. The Church of England explicitly teaches the initial doctrine of election shared by the Lutherans in Article 17 of its 39 Articles. It also implicitly teaches the fully Calvinistic doctrine in its assurance that the elect will “walk religiously in good works; and at length, by God’s mercy … attain to everlasting felicity.” Still, the 39 Articles do not explicitly speak of God’s role in not electing some. In 1595, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York both approved of “The Lambeth Articles,” which did explicitly speak of both divine election and reprobation. These were not approved by Queen Elizabeth I, however, and so they never became full confessional documents for the Church of England. In 1615, this same theology was articulated by the Protestant Church of Ireland in the “Irish Articles.” The most famous and detailed explanation of the theology of election, however, is in the 1619 Dutch Synod of Dort.
The canons of the Synod of Dort lay out a doctrinal answer to the five points of the followers of Jacob Arminius. These theologians are now known as “Arminians,” and “Arminianism” is frequently explained to be the opposite of Calvinism. The Arminian theologians challenged the Calvinistic orthodoxy that was already present in Holland at the time. The Synod of Dort refuted them and gave an extended defense of the Calvinistic doctrine of election.
The doctrine of the Synod of Dort is commonly called “the five points of Calvinism” and is summarized by the acronym TULIP. This stands for:
- Total depravity
- Unconditional election
- Limited atonement
- Irresistible grace
- Perseverance of the saints
While this acronym is famous and has become a very effective teaching device, it is not a historically accurate summary of the teaching of Dort. It also uses imprecise language which is often understood in erroneous ways.
The word “tulip” is an English word, and so it would not have been a possible way for the theologians at Dort to organize their theology. The five points at Dort do not follow the order of TULIP, nor do the headings match. In fact, the canons of Dort combine the third and fourth “points” into one section. So while the Arminians may have had five points, the Calvinists at Dort walked away with only four. The term “atonement” is not even used by Dort. It is a uniquely English word, having been invented by William Tyndale in 1526.
Having said this, it is unlikely that the five points approach will fade away any time soon, and so we can still explain these points in the following way:
I. Total Depravity: Understanding Innate Inability
The doctrine commonly known as “total depravity” is better understood as “innate inability.” It is a consequence of the doctrine of original sin and the loss of free will, as discussed above.
II. Unconditional Election: God’s Sovereign Choice
Unconditional election is the view discussed earlier that God alone chooses who will be saved and not based on any merit in them.
III. Limited Atonement: Definite Atonement or Particular Redemption
“Limited atonement” is the most controversial of the five points, but it was not taught at Dort. Instead, the historic doctrine had to do with the divine will to apply the death of Christ to believers and effectually ensure that they would receive it and be saved, the special intent in Christ himself to bring about the redemption of the elect, and the relationship between Christ’s death on the cross and the indiscriminate offer of the gospel to call on the condition that they believe. All traditional Calvinists believed that Christ’s sacrifice possessed an infinite merit and that it was sufficient to forgive the sins of all. The canons of Dort teach that “The death of the Son of God is the only and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for sin, and is of infinite worth and value, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world” (Second Head, Article 3). They also teach that “the promise of the gospel is, that whosoever believeth in Christ crucified, shall not perish, but have everlasting life. This promise, together with the command to repent and believe, ought to be declared and published to all nations, and to all persons promiscuously and without distinction, to whom God out of His good pleasure sends the gospel” (Second Head, Article 5), and “whereas many who are called by the gospel do not repent nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief, this is not owing to any defect or insufficiency in the sacrifice offered by Christ upon the cross, but is wholly to be imputed to themselves” (Second Head, Article 6). The “limitation” was in the divine decree to elect and then to effectually bring about the redemption of the elect through the mediation of Christ and his death. This doctrine is therefore better described as “definite atonement” or “particular redemption.”
IV. Irresistible Grace: God’s Transforming Power
The “I” in TULIP stands for “irresistible grace” and is also easily misunderstood. It does not mean that all of God’s grace is irresistible but only that the specific grace which actually converts the sinner is irresistible. This grace “goes before” any action of the human will. But after this initial grace, the human will is changed and thus works together with the divine. Calvinism teaches that, because of divine election, this process will always be effectual. It is not based upon the works of the human will.
V. Perseverance of the Saints: Eternal Security
Finally, the perseverance of the saints teaches both that true believers must persevere in faith throughout the course of their lives and that they certainly will because of God’s gracious election.
7. Hyper-Calvinism: An Extreme Interpretation
Hyper-Calvinism is an exclusively critical term. Opponents of Calvinism consider all Calvinists to be hyper-Calvinists. But within Calvinism, hyper-Calvinism typically refers to those who deny the freedom and contingency of secondary causes—especially theologians who argue that God foreordains men to damnation apart from first considering their sin. Hyper-Calvinism is also applied to those who deny that the gospel should be preached indiscriminately to everyone.
8. Moderate Calvinism: A Balanced Perspective
Moderate Calvinism is not really a distinctive school within Calvinism. Typically the expression means those theologians who affirm predestinarian theology but who decline to give it a central or primary emphasis. They instead balance it with doctrines like the sacraments and ordinary means of grace. Moderate Calvinists are also frequently said to deny “limited atonement,” but this depends on the false understanding of atonement which we attempted to correct above. Theologians frequently considered to be “moderate Calvinists” were present at both Dort and Westminster and defended the theology of both confessional documents. The majority of Calvinistic Anglicans could be considered “moderate Calvinists.” The same is true for the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century German Reformed theologians and the seventeenth-century English Presbyterians.
9. Frequently Asked Questions About Calvinism
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the core beliefs of Calvinism? | Calvinism emphasizes the sovereignty of God in all things, including salvation. Key tenets include total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement (or definite atonement), irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints. |
| How does Calvinism differ from Arminianism? | Calvinism and Arminianism differ primarily on the doctrines of election and free will. Calvinism teaches that God unconditionally elects individuals for salvation, while Arminianism asserts that God’s election is based on his foreknowledge of who will believe. Arminianism also emphasizes free will in accepting or rejecting God’s grace. |
| Is Calvinism the same as Presbyterianism? | While many Presbyterians adhere to Calvinistic theology, the terms aren’t interchangeable. Presbyterianism is a specific form of church government, while Calvinism is a broader theological system that can be found in various denominations. |
| What is predestination in Calvinism? | Predestination in Calvinism is the doctrine that God has predetermined who will be saved (election) and who will not (reprobation). This is based on God’s sovereign will and not on any foreseen merit or action on the part of individuals. |
| What does “total depravity” mean in Calvinism? | “Total depravity” in Calvinism means that sin has affected every aspect of human nature, rendering individuals unable to seek God or do good on their own. It doesn’t mean that people are incapable of outward acts of kindness or morality, but rather that their hearts are inherently inclined away from God. |
| What is “unconditional election”? | “Unconditional election” is the belief that God chooses individuals for salvation based solely on his own will and purpose, not on any condition or action they perform. |
| What is the meaning of “limited atonement”? | “Limited atonement” (better understood as definite atonement or particular redemption) means that Christ’s atoning death was intended for and effectively secures the salvation of the elect. |
| What is “irresistible grace”? | “Irresistible grace” means that when God calls someone to salvation, that person will inevitably respond in faith. It doesn’t mean that people are forced against their will, but rather that God’s grace overcomes their resistance and draws them to himself. |
| What is the “perseverance of the saints”? | The “perseverance of the saints” is the doctrine that those who are truly saved will persevere in faith and good works until the end of their lives. This is not due to their own strength but to God’s preserving power. |
| How does Calvinism view the Bible? | Calvinism holds a high view of the Bible as the inspired and infallible Word of God. It is seen as the ultimate authority for faith and life. |
| What are some common criticisms of Calvinism? | Common criticisms of Calvinism include concerns about its doctrines of predestination and election, which some argue can lead to fatalism or a lack of evangelistic zeal. Others criticize its emphasis on God’s sovereignty as diminishing human responsibility. |
| What is the role of good works in Calvinism? | While good works do not contribute to salvation in Calvinism, they are seen as the necessary and inevitable result of genuine faith. They are evidence of God’s grace working in a person’s life. |
| How does Calvinism view social justice? | Calvinism has historically been a strong proponent of social justice, with many Calvinists believing that Christians have a responsibility to work for the betterment of society and to address issues of poverty, oppression, and inequality. |
| Are all Calvinists the same? | No, there is diversity within Calvinism. Some Calvinists hold more strict or “high” views, while others have more moderate perspectives. There are also different denominations and traditions within Calvinism, each with its own nuances and emphases. |
| How can I learn more about Calvinism? | There are many resources available for learning more about Calvinism, including books, articles, websites, and online courses. Some recommended resources include the works of John Calvin, the Westminster Confession of Faith, and books by contemporary Calvinist theologians. You can also find helpful information and resources on WHAT.EDU.VN. |
10. Conclusion: Embracing God’s Sovereignty
While defining “Calvinism” can be challenging, the term has become an established part of theological discourse. It’s most often associated with the doctrine of divine predestination, rooted in the Scriptures and developed by Augustinian and Reformed theologians, particularly those connected to John Calvin. Calvinism further distinguishes itself by applying the concept of divine sovereignty to church and social life, inspiring a diverse group of theologians, pastors, and leaders who strive to align all aspects of life with God’s Word for His glory. They do so with the conviction that God is at work within them, confident that He will fulfill His plans for their good.
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