Jan van Eyck, a pivotal figure in Early Netherlandish painting, continues to captivate art historians and enthusiasts alike. Recent discoveries concerning his diptych, The Crucifixion and The Last Judgment, housed at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, have unveiled fascinating layers of meaning embedded within the artworks themselves. These revelations stem from the meticulous examination of inscriptions found on the paintings’ frames, prompting the crucial question: what does this text mean in the context of Van Eyck’s profound creations?
Art conservator meticulously examining the inscriptions on the frame of a Jan van Eyck painting in a conservation studio, utilizing a magnifying glass for detailed inspection.
Following groundbreaking findings regarding the originality and restoration of these texts, paleographer Marc Smith, a distinguished professor from École Nationale des Chartes and École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris, was enlisted to decipher these fragmented words and phrases. This endeavor was essential to understand what the text meant and its significance to the artwork.
The initial legibility of a few words hinted at a Middle Dutch translation of Latin biblical inscriptions. These inscriptions, rendered in a formal Gothic minuscule script using the pastiglia technique, were present on all sides of both frames. For paleographers, accustomed to deciphering faint letters without prior knowledge of the text, the Van Eyck frames presented a unique puzzle. The challenge was not merely to read the script, but to reconstruct the precise wording and spelling to ascertain the text’s origin and authorship.
The task was complicated by the deteriorated condition of the inscriptions. Sections of text were entirely lost, while much of what remained consisted only of the uppermost portions of letters. These vestiges were often barely perceptible—mere specks of white or subtle color variations within the underlying red paint, visible only through high-resolution photography or microscopic examination. Understanding what these fragments meant required a painstaking process.
Detailed comparison of a cleaned section of the Crucifixion frame inscription with a digital overlay of its transcription in Gothic script, illustrating the decipherment process.
Deciphering these inscriptions was a meticulous, letter-by-letter undertaking, akin to a complex crossword puzzle with profound implications for understanding what the text was meant to convey. The Gothic minuscule script, with its consistent structure resembling a “garden fence,” proved helpful. Its regularity and the location of distinguishing letter features primarily at the top facilitated identification and reconstruction, especially when the upper part of a letter was preserved.
The script’s visual similarity to writing on the Last Judgment panel and other Van Eyck works, along with the pastiglia inscriptions echoing Romanesque majuscule script, further contextualized the inscriptions within Van Eyck’s artistic practice.
To test potential readings, photographs of the frames were digitally overlaid with Gothic typeface text, mirroring the original script’s spacing. This method, unlike freehand drawing, prevented interpretive biases by adhering to the rigid proportions of the typeface. Fitting words into the available space necessitated utilizing conventional medieval abbreviations, some of which were still discernible on the frames, aiding in educated guesswork to ascertain what abbreviated words meant. Each reconstructed letter had to align with every visible paint trace.
The challenge was amplified by the absence of a standardized Middle Dutch Bible translation during Van Eyck’s time. Instead, numerous partial versions varied across manuscripts, alongside biblical quotations incorporated into diverse devotional texts. The spelling of the best-preserved sections pointed to a dialect from the region between the southern Netherlands and the German Rhineland, a hub of significant biblical translations from the late fourteenth to early sixteenth centuries. These linguistic clues offered various possibilities for what the intended rendering of the biblical passages meant in this specific dialect.
Close-up view of a page from a 15th-century illuminated manuscript, showcasing the ornate script style and decorative elements common in medieval texts.
Ultimately, approximately three-quarters of the painted inscriptions were reliably reconstructed—around five-sixths of the Crucifixion and half of the Last Judgment. Despite some remaining uncertainties regarding alternative spellings or words, the deciphered text offers significant insights into what Van Eyck meant to communicate.
The Latin text itself was not a direct quotation from the Vulgate but rather a reinterpretation adapted to the paintings’ iconography and spatial constraints. Notably, the Last Judgment inscription commences with Ecce tabernaculum Dei, “Behold the tabernacle of God.” This opening line strengthens the hypothesis that the panels were initially intended as tabernacle doors, a proposition previously suggested by curator Maryan Ainsworth. Understanding what this phrase meant in the context of tabernacle doors versus a diptych is crucial for interpreting the artwork’s function and meaning.
The literalness of the Middle Dutch translation to the Latin suggests it was specifically created for these frames. Both the script and language align with the Van Eyck workshop’s time and location, or a closely related context. This raises intriguing questions about the commission’s evolution: Was the intended purpose shifted from tabernacle doors to a devotional diptych for a layperson desiring a translated text, either shortly before or after the panels’ completion? Further comparative analysis of these inscriptions with other shorter vernacular texts by Van Eyck, including his personal notes, could potentially pinpoint the dialect’s geographic origin and solidify its connection to Van Eyck and his workshop. This would further illuminate what the specific linguistic choices meant about the artwork’s creation and intended audience.
Text Translation: The Crucifixion
And he gave up his soul in death . . . and he was numbered with the transgressors; and he bare the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors. The Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all. He was offered in sacrifice because he himself was willing. . . . he opened not his mouth: he is brought as a sheep to the slaughter, and as a lamb before her shearer was dumb, . . . For the transgression of my people have I stricken him. And he shall be given the wicked for his grave, and the rich for his death. [Isaiah 53:6–9, 12]
What does this text from Isaiah mean in the context of the Crucifixion? It emphasizes Christ’s sacrifice, his bearing of sins, and his willingness to suffer for humanity’s transgressions, deepening the viewer’s contemplation of the painting’s central theme.
Text Translation: The Last Judgment
Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be their God. And he shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow… neither shall there be any more pain [Revelation 21:3, 4]
The sea gave up its dead [Revelation 20:13]
I will heap mischiefs upon them; I will spend mine arrows upon them. They shall be burnt with hunger, and devoured by birds with a most bitter bite . . . I will . . . send the teeth of beasts upon them, with the fury of creatures that trail upon the ground and of serpents [Deuteronomy 32:23, 24]
Death . . . gave up its dead . . . [Revelation 20:13]
What does this collection of texts mean in the context of the Last Judgment? It juxtaposes the promise of divine salvation and comfort with stark pronouncements of divine wrath and judgment. The texts from Revelation offer hope and redemption for the faithful, while those from Deuteronomy depict the terrifying consequences for the wicked, reflecting the dual nature of the Last Judgment scene.
By deciphering and understanding what these texts mean, we gain a richer appreciation for Jan van Eyck’s artistry and the profound theological and artistic layers embedded within The Crucifixion and The Last Judgment. These inscriptions are not mere decorations; they are integral components that amplify the paintings’ meaning and offer a deeper engagement with Van Eyck’s masterpieces.
The Crucifixion and The Last Judgment are currently exhibited at The Met Fifth Avenue in gallery 641, inviting viewers to contemplate these newly illuminated dimensions of meaning.
Related Content
Explore further insights into this subject through these essays on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: “Early Netherlandish Painting“; “Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390–1441)“; “Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to Southern Europe.”
Learn about enhancements to the viewing experience in The Met’s Old Master galleries through the web feature Met Masterpieces in a New Light, detailing the European Paintings Skylights Project.
