The Basque region, straddling the border between Spain and France, has a long history of distinct cultural identity and aspirations for self-governance. This desire for autonomy manifested most violently in the actions of ETA. But What Is Eta? ETA, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, which translates to “Basque Country and Freedom,” is a Basque separatist organization that employed terrorism and political violence in pursuit of an independent Basque state. Born during the Franco dictatorship, ETA’s story is intertwined with Spain’s tumultuous 20th-century history and the complex politics of regional autonomy.
ETA emerged in 1959, during a period when Spain was under the authoritarian rule of General Francisco Franco. Franco’s regime suppressed Basque culture and language, fueling resentment and nationalist sentiment in the region. Initially, ETA’s activities were largely focused on political activism and protests against the dictatorship. However, as the regime’s repression intensified, ETA evolved into a paramilitary organization.
The death of Franco in 1975 and Spain’s subsequent transition to democracy brought significant changes. The Basque Country, home to approximately two million people, was granted a considerable degree of home rule. Today, the Spanish Basque region enjoys extensive autonomy, possessing its own parliament, police force, control over education, and the power to collect its own taxes. This level of autonomy is greater than any other region in Spain.
Despite these advancements in self-governance, ETA and its most ardent supporters remained steadfast in their demand for full independence. They argued that autonomy was insufficient and that only complete separation from Spain would truly address Basque aspirations. This unwavering stance fueled a decades-long campaign of violence.
Over four decades, ETA’s violent campaign resulted in the deaths of more than 820 people. The group’s targets included a wide range of individuals and institutions representing the Spanish state. Members of the Guardia Civil, Spain’s national police force, were frequently targeted, as were both local and national politicians who publicly opposed ETA’s separatist objectives. Businesses and infrastructure were also attacked as part of ETA’s strategy to destabilize the Spanish state and pressure the government into negotiations.
However, in the later years of its existence, ETA faced increasing pressure from multiple fronts. Concerted efforts by Spanish and French police forces, coupled with growing political isolation, significantly weakened the organization. While ETA continued to mount occasional attacks, security experts observed a marked decline in its capabilities and operational reach.
The late 1970s, a period when ETA was at its most lethal, saw an average of 100 deaths per year attributed to the group. This peak of violence coincided with Spain’s delicate transition from dictatorship to democracy, a time of political instability and social upheaval. By the 21st century, the landscape had dramatically changed. Following a period of relative inactivity after 2003, ETA carried out a deadly attack in late 2006, but such incidents became increasingly rare.
By this point, ETA’s operational capacity had diminished. While maintaining some logistical networks in France and a pool of a few hundred young individuals willing to participate in violent actions across the Franco-Spanish border region, the group was a shadow of its former self. French and Spanish law enforcement agencies actively worked to dismantle ETA’s infrastructure, while the Spanish government took decisive steps to undermine its political support base.
A key strategy employed by the Spanish government was the banning of the political wing of the Basque separatist movement. This political wing, operating under various names such as Herri Batasuna, Euskal Herritarrok, and Batasuna, was deemed inextricably linked to ETA. The rationale behind the ban was to cut off funding and logistical support to ETA units and to prevent the separatist movement from gaining political legitimacy through representation in democratic institutions.
Joint operations between Spanish and French police resulted in a series of significant arrests of suspected ETA leaders. The capture of Garikoitz Aspiazu Rubina, believed to be ETA’s military head, in November 2008, and the earlier arrest of Javier Lopez Pena, the group’s political commander, in France, signaled a major blow to the organization. These arrests, along with subsequent detentions of other alleged senior figures, created a perception that authorities had gained the upper hand.
Crucially, public support for ETA was also eroding. This decline in support was driven by several factors. The rise of moderate Basque nationalist parties offered a peaceful and democratic path for pursuing Basque interests, diminishing the appeal of violence. Furthermore, a growing segment of Basque society came to view ETA’s continued violence as anachronistic and out of step with contemporary public opinion. The exclusion of radical separatist parties from Basque elections in May 2009 and the subsequent election of the first non-nationalist government in the Basque parliament in 30 years, led by Socialist Patxi Lopez, underscored this shift in political sentiment.
A pivotal moment in the erosion of public support for ETA was the kidnapping and murder of Miguel Angel Blanco in July 1997. Blanco, a 29-year-old local councillor from the ruling Popular Party in the Basque region, became a symbol of ETA’s brutality and galvanized widespread public outrage against the group’s violence. This event is widely seen as a turning point, marking a significant decline in ETA’s legitimacy and popular backing.
In conclusion, what is ETA can be understood through its history as a Basque separatist group that resorted to violence to achieve its aims. While rooted in the context of Franco’s dictatorship and Basque nationalist aspirations, ETA’s campaign of terror ultimately lost public support and was effectively countered by security forces and political measures. Although ETA declared a ceasefire in 2010 and formally dissolved in 2018, its legacy continues to shape discussions about Basque identity, regional autonomy, and the complex history of Spain.
