Fascism remains a potent term in political discourse, often invoked but less frequently deeply understood. To truly grasp what fascism is, it’s essential to move beyond simple definitions and examine its historical development and characteristics. This article will explore the stages through which fascist movements have historically risen to power, drawing primarily from the examples of Benito Mussolini’s Italy and Adolf Hitler’s Germany. Understanding these stages provides critical insights into recognizing and addressing potential resurgences of fascist ideologies in contemporary times.
Stage One: Emerging from Disillusionment
Fascism often finds fertile ground in periods of widespread societal disillusionment. The aftermath of World War I provided precisely such conditions in Europe. Both Mussolini and Hitler ascended to prominence by exploiting the political and economic turmoil that followed the Great War, effectively channeling popular discontent against existing leadership.
In Germany, Hitler skillfully manipulated the Treaty of Versailles, the peace agreement that concluded World War I. He portrayed the treaty’s harsh terms – Germany’s forced acceptance of war guilt, territorial losses, military limitations, and hefty reparations – as a national humiliation. This narrative resonated deeply in a Germany grappling with economic despair, international isolation, and political instability. Hitler’s promise to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and restore German honor became a powerful rallying cry, attracting a substantial following.
[alt text: A political cartoon depicting the Treaty of Versailles as a heavy burden on Germany, symbolizing the post-WWI disillusionment exploited by Hitler.]
The economic crises of the post-war era further eroded public trust in established political systems. Germany experienced hyperinflation immediately after the war, devastating the value of savings and creating widespread economic hardship. Italy, too, faced severe economic challenges, including mass strikes, factory occupations, and high unemployment. These conditions of economic precarity and social unrest created an environment ripe for extremist ideologies to take hold.
Stage Two: Establishing Legitimacy as a Political Party
Fascist leaders are adept at transforming popular disillusionment into tangible political power. Mussolini and Hitler both understood the necessity of forming political parties to challenge the existing order. They utilized both electoral politics and street violence to gain prominence and destabilize the ruling establishment.
Mussolini founded Italy’s Fascist Party in 1919, openly advocating for Italian nationalism and vehemently opposing socialism. His movement attracted fervent supporters, many of whom were organized into armed militias known as the squadristi, or “Blackshirts,” named after their distinctive uniforms. These fascist militants engaged in frequent street clashes with socialists and other political opponents, creating an atmosphere of intimidation and political polarization.
[alt text: A photograph of Benito Mussolini leading a rally of Blackshirts, illustrating the paramilitary aspect of early fascist movements.]
In Germany, the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers’ Party), emerged in 1920, also capitalizing on post-war grievances. The Nazis propagated the “stab-in-the-back” myth, falsely claiming that Germany’s defeat in World War I was not due to military failure but to internal sabotage by Jewish people and left-wing activists. They further blamed the newly formed democratic government for accepting the armistice and the Treaty of Versailles. This potent mix of nationalism, scapegoating, and conspiracy theories propelled the Nazi Party from a fringe group to a significant political force. They dramatically increased their vote share from 3 percent in the 1928 parliamentary elections to 44 percent in 1933. Like the Italian fascists, the Nazis also had their own paramilitary wing, the Sturmabteilung (SA), or “Brownshirts,” who engaged in street violence and intimidation tactics against political rivals.
Stage Three: Gaining Power via Right-Wing Partnerships
The political landscape of interwar Europe was largely defined by the tension between conservatives and socialists. Fascism, as a relatively new political force, gained access to power by strategically aligning itself with conservative elements. While conservatives recognized the fascists’ radical agenda and their desire to dismantle the existing political system, they found common ground in their shared opposition to socialism and communism. The rise of communist regimes, particularly in Russia after 1917, fueled fears among conservatives who saw communism as a fundamental threat to traditional values and social order.
In Italy, this dynamic led to conservatives joining forces with Mussolini’s Fascist Party, forming a parliamentary majority after the 1921 elections. Similarly, in Germany, conservative leaders made a fateful decision to collaborate with the Nazis. They viewed a fascist coalition as a temporary measure to prevent socialist or communist parties from gaining power. After the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag (German parliament) in 1932, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933. Conservative leaders believed they could control Hitler and utilize his popular appeal while maintaining their own influence. This proved to be a disastrous miscalculation, as the Nazis quickly outmaneuvered and ultimately eliminated their conservative partners.
[alt text: A historical image of Hitler and Hindenburg shaking hands, representing the fateful alliance between conservatives and Nazis in Germany.]
Stage Four: Using Power to Dominate Institutions
Once in power, fascist parties prioritize consolidating their political authority and dismantling democratic checks and balances.
Mussolini’s Fascist Party, initially part of a coalition government after the 1921 elections, steadily expanded its control. In 1922, the King of Italy appointed Mussolini Prime Minister following the “March on Rome,” a staged mass demonstration by fascist supporters. While the Fascists gained significant power, traditional institutions in Italy, such as the Catholic Church, retained some degree of autonomy, preventing a complete fascist takeover in the same manner as in Germany.
In contrast, the Nazis in Germany pursued a strategy of total domination of all aspects of government and society. Immediately after becoming Chancellor in 1933, Hitler initiated the removal of all non-Nazis from government positions. The regime proceeded to enact discriminatory laws, stripping Jewish people of their citizenship and expelling anti-Nazi academics from universities. To solidify Nazi control, all opposing political parties were banned, and Hitler secured the passage of the Enabling Act, which granted him dictatorial powers to rule by decree, bypassing parliamentary oversight. Germany was transformed into a one-party state, with the Nazis claiming implausible landslide victories in subsequent elections, which were neither free nor fair. After 1938, elections ceased to be held altogether, marking the complete erosion of democratic processes.
Stage Five: Implementing Radical Reforms
With near-absolute power, fascist regimes embark on implementing radical and often brutal policies, reflecting their extremist ideologies.
Mussolini’s Italy engaged in aggressive colonial expansion, particularly in Africa. During colonial campaigns in Libya, Italian forces used chemical weapons against local resistance and established concentration camps. In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia), unleashing a brutal war characterized by racist violence, including mass rape and indiscriminate killings that resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths. While Mussolini’s regime did not perpetrate ethnic violence on the scale of Nazi Germany within Italy itself, it did promote racial ideologies, declaring white, Christian Italians as descendants of the Aryan race and prohibiting marriage between them and Black or Jewish people.
[alt text: A propaganda poster from Fascist Italy promoting colonial expansion and depicting an idealized Italian soldier in Africa.]
Nazi Germany under Hitler represents the most extreme example of fascist radicalization. As Führer (absolute leader), Hitler eliminated all political opposition, orchestrated the genocide of millions of Jews, Roma, and other minority groups in the Holocaust, initiated aggressive military expansion across Europe, and, in alliance with Mussolini, plunged the world into World War II, the deadliest conflict in human history. The horrors of Nazi Germany and the catastrophic consequences of fascism serve as a stark warning about the dangers of unchecked extremism and the fragility of democracy. Even decades after Hitler’s defeat, the lessons of his rise to power and Germany’s descent into fascism remain profoundly relevant. They underscore the critical importance of vigilance against racism, extremism, and the erosion of democratic institutions to safeguard liberal democracies.
Does Fascism Exist Today?
While most historians consider fascism as a phenomenon primarily associated with the interwar period and exemplified by Mussolini and Hitler, the underlying conditions and characteristics that enabled its rise can resurface in different contexts. Leaders and political movements may attempt to emulate aspects of the “fascist playbook” in their pursuit of power.
Even if contemporary movements do not fully replicate all five stages of historical fascism, they can still exhibit concerning similarities. This is particularly relevant in an era marked by a global trend of democratic backsliding, where democratic norms and institutions are under increasing strain. The threats to democracy today often originate not from external aggressors, but from within, as domestic leaders and movements seek to weaken the very institutions designed to protect political freedoms and civil liberties.
Therefore, understanding the historical stages of fascism remains crucial. As long as democracy faces challenges, recognizing the conditions that historically facilitated the rise of such destructive regimes is essential for preventing their recurrence and safeguarding democratic values.
