Manifest Destiny is a term deeply embedded in the narrative of American history, yet often misunderstood in its complexities and consequences. More than just a historical footnote, it represents a powerful ideology that shaped the United States, driving its territorial expansion across the continent and influencing its identity on the world stage. This article delves into the core meaning of Manifest Destiny, tracing its origins, exploring its justifications, and examining its lasting impact.
Manifest Destiny was the 19th-century doctrine that Americans were divinely ordained to expand their civilization and democratic institutions across the North American continent. It was a belief that the United States had a special mission to spread its influence and way of life, from coast to coast.
Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way (mural study, U.S. Capitol), 1861, Emmanuel Gottlieb Leutze. This painting visually represents the ideology of Manifest Destiny, depicting American settlers moving westward towards a bright future.
The Origins of Manifest Destiny: A “City Upon a Hill” and the Call to Expand
While the term “Manifest Destiny” gained prominence in the 1840s, the underlying concept has roots stretching back to the very beginnings of European colonization in North America. Early English settlers, particularly the Puritans, arrived with a strong sense of mission. John Winthrop, a leader of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, famously proclaimed in 1630 that their new settlement would be “a city upon a hill,” a model of Christian society for the world to emulate. This idea of American exceptionalism – the belief that the United States is unique and holds a special place among nations – laid the groundwork for Manifest Destiny.
This early sense of divine purpose intertwined with a practical need for expansion. As the fledgling nation grew, so did its desire for land, resources, and security. The concept of Manifest Destiny provided a powerful justification for this expansionist drive, framing it not as mere territorial greed, but as a fulfillment of God’s will and America’s inherent destiny.
Journalist John Louis O’Sullivan is credited with popularizing the phrase “Manifest Destiny” in 1845. In an essay advocating for the annexation of Texas, O’Sullivan wrote about the “right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.” This articulation resonated deeply with the American public, capturing the prevailing sentiment of expansionism and divine purpose.
Justifications for Expansion: God, Liberty, and Progress
Several intertwined justifications fueled the ideology of Manifest Destiny.
- Divine Providence: Central to Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had ordained the United States to expand its dominion across the continent. This religious justification provided a powerful moral imperative for westward expansion, casting it as a sacred duty rather than a political choice.
- American Exceptionalism and Democracy: Proponents of Manifest Destiny argued that American democracy and republicanism were superior forms of government and that it was America’s duty to spread these blessings. Expansion was seen as a way to extend liberty and self-government to new territories and populations.
- Civilization and Progress: Linked to the idea of American exceptionalism was the belief in the superiority of American civilization. Advocates of Manifest Destiny often portrayed westward expansion as bringing progress, enlightenment, and civilization to what they considered “uncivilized” lands and peoples, often overlooking or dismissing the existing cultures and societies of Native Americans and other groups.
- Economic Opportunity: The promise of land, resources, and economic opportunity was a powerful motivator for westward expansion. Manifest Destiny tapped into this desire, portraying expansion as essential for national prosperity and individual advancement.
American Progress, 1872, John Gast. This allegorical painting encapsulates Manifest Destiny, depicting Columbia, representing the United States, leading civilization westward, bringing light and progress while displacing Native Americans and wildlife.
Manifest Destiny in Art: Visualizing the Ideology
The concept of Manifest Destiny was not just confined to political speeches and writings; it was also powerfully visualized in art. Two murals, both studies for the U.S. Capitol Building, vividly illustrate the themes and symbolism associated with Manifest Destiny.
Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way by Emanuel Leutze
Emanuel Leutze’s mural study, Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way, painted during the Civil War, offers a romantic and idealized depiction of westward expansion. The painting portrays a group of pioneers reaching a mountain summit, bathed in golden light, as they look out upon the promised land of the American West.
Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way (detail), 1861, Emmanuel Gottlieb Leutze. The central family group in Leutze’s painting evokes the Holy Family, suggesting a divinely sanctioned migration.
Leutze employs symbolism to reinforce the message of Manifest Destiny:
- The Promised Land: The sunlit West represents a land of opportunity and fulfillment, a “promised land” for the pioneers.
- Overcoming Hardship: The settlers are depicted as having endured hardship and overcome obstacles to reach their destination, highlighting the perceived trials and triumphs of westward expansion.
- Mythological and Biblical Allusions: The borders of the painting incorporate figures from Greek mythology, such as Jason and the Argonauts, and biblical figures, like the Magi, to connect westward expansion to grand narratives of destiny and divine guidance. Christopher Columbus and Noah’s dove further emphasize themes of exploration and divinely ordained journeys.
- American Eagle and Berkeley’s Line: At the top, an American eagle heralds the painting’s title, derived from a poem by Bishop George Berkeley predicting America’s golden age through westward expansion. Indigenous people are shown “creeping and flying” before the eagle, symbolizing their displacement in the face of American progress.
Leutze’s work served as powerful propaganda, especially during the Civil War, promoting a vision of national unity and a shared destiny through westward expansion, even as the nation was deeply divided.
Study for the Apotheosis of Washington by Constantino Brumidi
Constantino Brumidi’s Study for the Apotheosis of Washington, a preparatory work for the mural in the U.S. Capitol dome, presents a different but complementary vision of American destiny, focusing on national greatness and leadership.
Study for the Apotheosis of Washington (detail), ca. 1859-62, Constantino Brumidi. George Washington is elevated to a god-like status, surrounded by allegorical figures representing American ideals and progress.
This circular painting depicts George Washington being elevated to the heavens, surrounded by allegorical figures representing liberty, fame, and the thirteen original colonies. Other figures embody American innovation, commerce, and military strength.
- Apotheosis of Washington: The central figure of George Washington being raised to divine status signifies the deification of American leadership and the nation’s founding ideals.
- Allegorical Figures of American Progress: Surrounding Washington are figures representing American achievements in various fields, including science (Benjamin Franklin, Robert Fulton, Samuel Morse), commerce (Mercury, Robert Morris), military might (Vulcan), and agriculture (Ceres). Venus with the transatlantic cable and Neptune with an ironclad warship symbolize technological advancement and naval power.
- National Unity and Greatness: Painted during the Civil War, this mural study was intended to bolster national spirit and symbolize the Union’s enduring greatness, even amidst division. It presents a vision of America as a powerful and divinely blessed nation, destined for continued success.
Study for the Apotheosis of Washington (detail), ca. 1859-62, Constantino Brumidi. The figure of Freedom, with a sword and shield, triumphs over vanquished foes, including a subtle representation of Jefferson Davis.
The Consequences and Criticisms of Manifest Destiny
While Manifest Destiny provided a powerful narrative for American expansion, it came at a significant cost and faced growing criticism.
- Displacement and Violence Against Native Americans: The westward expansion driven by Manifest Destiny led to the forced removal and displacement of numerous Native American tribes from their ancestral lands. Policies like the Indian Removal Act and events like the Trail of Tears exemplify the brutal consequences of this expansionist ideology. Wars and conflicts with Native American populations were frequent and devastating.
- The Mexican-American War: Manifest Destiny played a significant role in the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The desire to acquire territories like California and Texas, fueled by the belief in America’s right to continental dominance, led to conflict with Mexico.
- Justification for Slavery Expansion: The issue of slavery became increasingly intertwined with Manifest Destiny. As the United States expanded westward, the question of whether new territories would be free or slave states intensified sectional tensions and ultimately contributed to the Civil War. Some argued that Manifest Destiny included the expansion of slavery, while others vehemently opposed this view.
- Moral and Ethical Criticisms: Critics of Manifest Destiny, both at the time and since, have condemned it as a justification for aggression, imperialism, and racism. They argued that it masked territorial greed and nationalistic ambition under the guise of divine purpose and progress, ignoring the rights and humanity of those displaced and subjugated by American expansion.
The Lasting Legacy of Manifest Destiny
Although the overt rhetoric of Manifest Destiny faded by the late 19th century, its legacy continues to resonate in American society and foreign policy.
- Territorial Expansion and National Identity: Manifest Destiny profoundly shaped the territorial boundaries of the United States, leading to the acquisition of vast lands and resources. It also contributed to a sense of American national identity rooted in expansionism, individualism, and a belief in American exceptionalism.
- Influence on Foreign Policy: The ideas underlying Manifest Destiny have been invoked throughout American history to justify various foreign interventions and expansionist policies. From the Spanish-American War to later interventions in Latin America and beyond, the notion of America’s special mission and right to spread its influence has persisted.
- Contemporary Debates: Discussions about Manifest Destiny remain relevant today, particularly in debates about American exceptionalism, interventionism, and the legacy of colonialism and westward expansion. Understanding Manifest Destiny is crucial for critically examining American history and its ongoing impact on both domestic and foreign affairs.
Study for the Apotheosis of Washington (detail), ca. 1859-62, Constantino Brumidi. This detail showcases the artistic skill and symbolic richness of Brumidi’s preparatory study for the Capitol dome mural.
In conclusion, Manifest Destiny was a complex and multifaceted ideology that profoundly shaped the history of the United States. While it provided a powerful rationale for westward expansion and contributed to the nation’s growth and development, it also resulted in significant injustices and had lasting negative consequences for many groups. Examining Manifest Destiny critically is essential for understanding the historical forces that have shaped the United States and for grappling with its enduring legacies.
