Zionism is a Jewish nationalist movement that espouses the development and protection of a Jewish nation state in what is now Israel. Rooted deeply in the historical and religious ties of Jews to the Land of Israel (Eretz Yisraʾel), or Palestine, Zionism emerged as a potent force in the late 19th century, primarily in Eastern and Central Europe. However, its origins are intrinsically linked to the enduring connection between Judaism and the region of Palestine throughout centuries. In Jewish tradition, Zion, a hill in ancient Jerusalem, holds immense significance as the dwelling place of God.
The rise of anti-Zionism, particularly prominent during events such as the Israel-Hamas War, underscores the ongoing debates and controversies surrounding Zionism. Understanding Zionism requires delving into its historical evolution, key figures, and the diverse perspectives it encompasses.
The Foundations of Modern Zionism: Haskala and Theodor Herzl
The late 18th-century Haskala, or Jewish Enlightenment, advocated for Jewish assimilation into broader Western secular culture. Yet, amidst this push for integration, the idea of a Jewish return to Palestine persisted, fueled in part by Christian millenarian movements in the early 19th century. Despite the Haskala’s influence, Eastern European Jews largely remained distinct and, facing violent pogroms in Tsarist Russia, coalesced into the Ḥovevei Ẕiyyon, or “Lovers of Zion.” This movement actively promoted the settlement of Jewish farmers and artisans in Palestine, laying early groundwork for practical Zionism.
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A pivotal shift towards political Zionism occurred with Theodor Herzl, an Austrian journalist. Herzl, initially favoring assimilation, concluded that persistent anti-Semitism rendered it unattainable. He posited that the only viable path for Jews to live normally as a nation was through concentrated settlement in a territory of their own. In 1897, Herzl convened the inaugural Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. This landmark event produced the Basel program, which formally declared that “Zionism strives to create for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law.” Herzl is often regarded as the father of modern Zionism, transforming it from a loosely affiliated movement into a structured political endeavor.
Vienna became the central hub of the Zionist movement, with Herzl publishing Die Welt (“The World”) as its official weekly publication. Zionist Congresses became regular events, initially annual until 1901 and subsequently held biennially. When the Ottoman Empire, then in control of Palestine, rejected Herzl’s appeals for Jewish autonomy, he sought support from Great Britain. In 1903, Britain offered land in Uganda for Jewish settlement, but Zionists remained steadfast in their focus on Palestine.
Following Herzl’s death in 1904, the Zionist leadership transitioned from Vienna to Cologne and then to Berlin. Leading up to World War I, Zionism, though still a minority movement primarily supported by Russian Jews but led by Austrian and German figures, actively disseminated its message. Through public speaking, pamphlets, and dedicated newspapers, Zionism spurred a “Jewish renaissance” in arts and literature. Significantly, the evolution of Modern Hebrew as a living language largely took place during this period, reflecting a cultural and national revival intertwined with Zionist aspirations.
Establishing a Jewish State in Palestine
The failure of the Russian Revolution of 1905, coupled with ensuing pogroms and repressive measures, dramatically increased Jewish emigration to Palestine, particularly among younger generations. These pioneers established agricultural settlements, known as kibbutzim. By 1914, the Jewish population in Palestine had grown to approximately 90,000, with 13,000 residing in 43 kibbutzim. Many of these settlements received financial support from Baron Edmond de Rothschild, a French Jewish philanthropist. Labor Zionism, a prominent ideology at the time, promoted collective endeavors like kibbutzim as crucial for building a Jewish state and became a significant component of the Israeli left-wing political landscape.
World War I marked a resurgence of political Zionism, with leadership shifting to Russian Jews in England. Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow played key roles in securing the Balfour Declaration from Britain in 1917. This declaration publicly affirmed British support for “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.” The Balfour Declaration was subsequently incorporated into Britain’s League of Nations mandate over Palestine in 1922. Simultaneously, Ze’ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky, advocating for Revisionist Zionism, which emphasized achieving Jewish self-determination through military force, began organizing Jewish self-defense groups in Palestine. In 1920, the Haganah, a Zionist military organization that later evolved into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), was founded.
In the ensuing years, Zionists focused on developing both urban and rural Jewish communities in Palestine. Autonomous institutions like kibbutzim flourished, and Jewish cultural life and Hebrew education were strengthened. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, supported by prominent Jewish figures like Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein, was established in 1918 and officially opened in 1925, becoming a leading research university. By 1925, the Jewish population in Palestine was estimated at 108,000, rising to approximately 238,000 by 1933, constituting 20 percent of the total population. However, Jewish immigration remained relatively slow until the rise of Adolf Hitler in Europe.
Growing Arab anxieties about the prospect of a Jewish state in Palestine led to increasing resistance to Zionism and British policies supporting it. Britain struggled to maintain order amidst Arab uprisings. The extensive Arab revolt of 1936–39 prompted Britain to reassess its strategy. Seeking to maintain peace between Jews and Palestinian Arabs, and to secure Arab support against Germany and Italy in World War II, Britain imposed restrictions on Jewish immigration in 1939. These restrictions were met with violent opposition from underground Revisionist groups like the Stern Gang and Irgun Zvai Leumi, who engaged in acts of terrorism and organized illegal Jewish immigration efforts.
The Holocaust, the systematic genocide of European Jews by the Nazis, dramatically altered the landscape. Seeking refuge, many Jewish survivors sought to immigrate to Palestine, and global support for Zionism surged, particularly in the United States. As tensions between Arabs and Zionists intensified, Britain referred the “Palestine problem” to the United Nations (UN). On November 29, 1947, the UN proposed partitioning Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem under international administration (United Nations Resolution 181). The State of Israel was declared on May 14, 1948, triggering an invasion by neighboring Arab states. The ensuing 1948 Arab-Israeli War resulted in an Israeli victory. By the time armistice agreements were signed in 1949, Israel controlled more territory than initially allocated under the UN partition plan. The conflict also resulted in approximately 800,000 Palestinian Arabs fleeing or being expelled (the Nakba), while Israel absorbed around 850,000 Jewish refugees from Middle Eastern countries.
Zionism in the Era of the State of Israel
With the establishment of Israel, Zionism achieved its central objective of creating a Jewish state in Palestine. However, the nascent state faced immense challenges, becoming a nation surrounded by hostile Arab neighbors and grappling with Palestinian organizations engaged in terrorism. The focus of Zionism shifted to securing the new state’s existence and gaining international legitimacy, particularly among Arab nations. A significant step towards regional peace occurred in 1979 when Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty following the Camp David Accords. This treaty paved the way for Palestinian autonomy and, with the 1993 Oslo Accords, Israel gained formal recognition from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). A peace treaty with Jordan followed in 1994. In 2020, the Abraham Accords facilitated the normalization of relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Morocco, further integrating Israel into the Middle East. Despite these advancements, relations with some nations, like Iran and Turkey, deteriorated, and conflicts with Hamas in Gaza and Hezbollah in Lebanon persisted, highlighting Israel’s ongoing security challenges.
Post-1948 Zionism also grappled with balancing Jewish self-determination and democratic principles, particularly concerning Israel’s Jewish demographic majority. While Israel had a significant Arab minority at its inception, large-scale Jewish immigration, fueled by Zionist calls for the “ingathering of exiles,” dramatically altered the demographic landscape. The 1967 Six-Day War, resulting in Israel’s occupation of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and other Arab territories, placed over a million additional Arabs under Israeli control. While Israel extended sovereignty to East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, the status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip remained unresolved. This situation raised concerns about Israel’s long-term ability to remain both a Jewish majority state and a democracy, leading to debates about solutions like the two-state solution, favored by many Labor Zionists, and concerns about security risks from a Palestinian state, particularly among Revisionist Zionists. A minority of Zionists advocated for full Israeli control over the West Bank and Gaza Strip, citing historical and religious significance.
Opposition to Zionism: Anti-Zionism
Zionism has faced opposition since its inception. Early religious Jewish opposition stemmed from beliefs that Judaism prohibited a Jewish state before the coming of the Messiah. Groups like Neturei Karta still maintain this view. Some secular Jews feared Zionism would hinder their assimilation, while others, both Jewish and non-Jewish, criticized the displacement of Palestinian Arabs as an inherent consequence of Zionism. Some critics reject the nation-state model altogether, opposing all forms of nationalism. Conversely, some non-Jewish opposition to Zionism has been rooted in or become a guise for anti-Semitism.
Despite the diverse spectrum within Zionism, including voices advocating for Palestinian rights, Israeli government policies perceived as harmful to Palestinians are often conflated with Zionism as a whole by anti-Zionists. Organizations like the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), while combating anti-Semitism, caution that opposition to Zionism can inadvertently marginalize Jews and reject the legitimacy of Jewish statehood.
While the extent to which anti-Zionism is inherently anti-Semitic remains debated, anti-Zionism can, at times, become indistinguishable from anti-Semitism, employing anti-Semitic tropes or marginalizing Jewish identity. Distinguishing between legitimate criticism of Israeli policies and anti-Semitism is crucial in navigating the complex discourse surrounding Zionism.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Mindy Johnston.
