India, a land of vibrant cultures and breathtaking landscapes, is equally renowned for its incredible linguistic diversity. The question “What Language Do They Speak In India?” is deceptively complex, opening up a fascinating exploration into a world where languages thrive in abundance. As a nation, India boasts not just one or two, but hundreds of languages, reflecting its rich history and multifaceted society.
To truly understand the linguistic landscape of India, we need to delve deeper than a simple answer. While Hindi and English serve as the official languages of the central government, India recognizes a remarkable 22 languages as “scheduled languages.” These languages, enshrined in the Indian Constitution, are officially acknowledged at state and regional levels, highlighting the nation’s commitment to linguistic pluralism. From Hindi, spoken by over half a billion people, to Sanskrit, with a smaller but historically significant speaker base, these languages represent a vast spectrum of communication within India. In fact, according to Ethnologue, India is home to a staggering 447 living languages. Even the 2011 Indian census, focusing on mother tongues, identified 270 distinct languages each with over 10,000 speakers.
This article will explore the fascinating world of Indian languages, providing a comprehensive overview of the official languages, the regional linguistic variations, and the sheer scale of language diversity that makes India linguistically unique.
The 22 Scheduled Languages of India: A Constitutional Recognition
The term “scheduled languages” in India refers to the 22 languages officially recognized by the Indian Constitution. This recognition signifies their importance at regional and national levels, granting them a degree of official status and protection. While Hindi holds the position of official language of the Union and English is used for subsidiary official purposes, these 22 languages represent the linguistic backbone of the country’s diverse states and regions. Interestingly, while English is crucial for national administration and legal proceedings, it is not included in the list of scheduled languages.
Let’s explore each of these 22 languages, uncovering their unique characteristics and significance within India’s linguistic mosaic:
Assamese
Alt text: Assamese script signboard in Assam, India, showcasing the language’s visual representation.
Assamese, primarily spoken in the northeastern state of Assam, marks the easternmost reach of the Indo-European language family. With over 15 million native speakers, Assamese acts as a vital lingua franca across Assam and the surrounding regions. Its history stretches back to at least the 7th century CE, giving it deep roots in the cultural heritage of the area.
The Assamese language is characterized by four main dialect groups: Eastern, Central, Kamrupi, and Goalpariya. Standard Assamese, the form used in literature and formal settings, is based on the Eastern dialect group. This linguistic diversity within Assamese itself highlights the intricate variations that exist even within a single language in India.
Bengali
Alt text: Bengali script street sign in Kolkata, India, illustrating the script used for this widely spoken language.
Bengali, also known as Bangla, holds the position of the second most spoken language in India, with an impressive 97 million native speakers. Only Hindi surpasses it in terms of speaker numbers within the country. Its widespread use makes Bengali a crucial language for communication and commerce, leading to significant demand for Bengali translation services for both business and personal needs.
Beyond India, Bengali is the primary language of Bangladesh, spoken fluently by 98% of the population. Within India, Bengali is concentrated in West Bengal, Tripura, and the Barak Valley region of Assam. Significant Bengali-speaking communities also exist in Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Uttarakhand, demonstrating its far-reaching presence across India.
Bodo
Alt text: Public sign in Bodo language in Bodoland, India, displaying the language in the Devanagari script.
Bodo, or Boro, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, distinguishing it from many other major Indian languages that are Indo-European or Dravidian. Spoken mainly in Northeast India, Nepal, and Bengal, particularly in Assam and the Bodoland autonomous region, Bodo has approximately 1.4 million speakers.
Historically, Bodo utilized Latin and Assamese scripts, and some scholars believe it possessed its own ancient script called Deodhai. Since 1963, Bodo has been written using the Devanagari script, the same script used for Hindi and Sanskrit, reflecting linguistic and cultural influences over time.
Dogri
Dogri, spoken by nearly 2.6 million native speakers, is primarily found in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, as well as in parts of northern Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. It exhibits several regional variations, adding to its linguistic complexity.
Once considered a dialect of Punjabi, Dogri is now recognized as an independent language. Its official recognition came in 2001 when it was added to the list of scheduled languages in the Indian Constitution, acknowledging its distinct linguistic identity.
Gujarati
Alt text: Gujarati script storefront sign in Gujarat, India, showcasing the unique script of the Gujarati language.
Gujarati, an Indo-European language, is the official language of the state of Gujarat in western India. It boasts around 55 million native speakers, making it the sixth most spoken language in India, with approximately 4.5% of the Indian population identifying it as their mother tongue. Beyond Gujarat, Gujarati also holds official language status in the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Gujarati’s significance extends beyond its speaker numbers. It has a rich literary tradition and plays a vital role in the commerce and culture of western India and among the global Gujarati diaspora.
Hindi
Alt text: Hindi script on a government building in New Delhi, India, indicating the official status of Hindi in the Indian government.
Hindi is not only the primary official language of India but also the fourth most widely spoken native language in the world. Its reach and influence are undeniable, making Hindi translation and localization services essential for businesses and individuals engaging with the Indian market.
Nine Indian states officially recognize Hindi, and it is spoken across the “Hindi belt,” encompassing parts of north, central, east, and west India. Hindi serves as a lingua franca in many other parts of the country, with numerous dialects and pidgin forms evolving in different regions. Standard Hindi shares mutual intelligibility with standard Urdu, further enhancing its role as a widespread means of communication across India.
Kannada
Alt text: Kannada script on a sign in Bangalore, India, representing the script of this Dravidian language.
Kannada, with around 44 million native speakers known as Kannadigas, is recognized as one of India’s classical languages. Its literary history spans over a millennium, showcasing a rich cultural heritage. Belonging to the Dravidian language family, Kannada is primarily spoken in the southwestern Indian state of Karnataka, where it holds official state language status. It also has a presence in parts of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala, and Goa.
Kannada’s classical language designation highlights its historical depth and significant contributions to Indian literature and culture.
Kashmiri
Alt text: Kashmiri script sign in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, demonstrating the Perso-Arabic script used for Kashmiri.
Kashmiri, spoken by approximately 6.7 million people, is primarily concentrated in the Jammu and Kashmir region, where it is recognized as an official regional language. In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri is a compulsory subject in schools up to the secondary level, emphasizing its importance in the region’s education system.
Kashmiri is notable for its verb-second word order, a feature less common in Indo-Aryan languages and potentially interesting for English speakers learning the language. It also uniquely employs three writing systems: Sharada, Devanagari, and Perso-Arabic scripts, reflecting diverse cultural and historical influences. Informally, particularly online, Roman script is also sometimes used by Kashmiri speakers.
Konkani
Konkani, spoken along India’s western coast, has around 2.2 million native speakers. It is the official language of Goa and a minority language in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Gujarat, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
In addition to standard Konkani, the language encompasses a range of dialects, some with limited mutual intelligibility. This dialectal variation is common in many Indian languages, reflecting regional isolation and independent linguistic development over time.
Maithili
The Indo-Aryan language Maithili boasts approximately 13.5 million speakers in India, primarily in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand. It also holds the position of the second most spoken language in Nepal, highlighting its cross-border presence and regional importance in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent.
Malayalam
Alt text: Malayalam script signboard in Kerala, India, showcasing the rounded script characteristic of Malayalam.
Malayalam, widely spoken in Kerala, Lakshadweep, and Puducherry, is spoken by around 34.8 million people, representing about 2.8% of the Indian population. Its reach extends beyond India, with significant numbers of Malayali expatriates in Gulf countries, contributing to its global presence.
The origins of Malayalam are debated among linguists, with theories suggesting it branched off from Middle Tamil or developed from Proto-Dravidian and Proto-Tamil-Malayalam. Regardless of its precise origins, Malayalam possesses a distinct linguistic identity and a rich cultural heritage, particularly in the state of Kerala.
Manipuri
Manipuri, also known as Meitei, is a tonal Sino-Tibetan language predominantly spoken in Northeastern India, particularly in the states of Manipur, Assam, and Tripura. With over 1.7 million native speakers, Manipuri has been recognized in the Constitution of India since 1992. However, UNESCO classifies it as a vulnerable language, highlighting the challenges faced by some of India’s less dominant languages in maintaining their vitality in the face of larger linguistic forces.
Marathi
Alt text: Marathi script on a bus in Mumbai, India, illustrating the script on public transport in Maharashtra.
Marathi, an official language of Maharashtra and Goa in Western India, is the third most spoken language in India with approximately 83 million native speakers. Its history in India spans over a millennium, and Marathi literature includes some of the oldest surviving works among modern Indian languages.
Marathi’s strong literary tradition and large speaker base solidify its position as a major language in India, particularly in the western regions.
Nepali
Nepali, while not among the major languages of India in terms of overall speaker numbers (around 2.9 million), holds significant regional importance. The state of Sikkim, the Darjeeling Sadar subdivision, and the Kalimpong district of West Bengal are home to substantial Nepali-speaking populations, reflecting migration patterns and historical connections with Nepal.
Odia
Alt text: Odia script on a sign in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, demonstrating the curved script of the Odia language.
Odia, primarily spoken in the state of Odisha, is another of India’s designated classical languages, recognized for its extensive literary history. An Indo-Aryan language, Odia has approximately 37.5 million native speakers, including a significant majority (82%) of Odisha residents, as well as communities in parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh.
Odia’s classical language status underscores its long and rich literary tradition, contributing significantly to Indian cultural heritage.
Punjabi
Alt text: Punjabi script on a sign in Amritsar, Punjab, India, showcasing the Gurmukhi script used for Punjabi.
Punjabi is a language spoken both in India and neighboring Pakistan. In India, it has over 33 million native speakers, making it the 11th most spoken language in the country. It is also the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, highlighting its significance across the Punjab region straddling the India-Pakistan border.
Spoken in the Punjab region of northwest India and eastern Pakistan, Punjabi is an Indo-European language distinguished by its use of lexical tone, a feature not common among its language family.
Sanskrit
Alt text: Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, illustrating the classical language’s written form.
Sanskrit, with just over 24,000 native speakers, is the least spoken scheduled language in India. However, its importance transcends speaker numbers. Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism and boasts a history spanning 3.5 millennia, making it one of the oldest documented Indo-European languages.
Sanskrit served as the lingua franca of ancient and medieval India and continues to be a living language today, influencing numerous modern Indian languages, including Hindi, Bengali, and Gujarati. Its profound historical and cultural significance makes Sanskrit a cornerstone of Indian civilization.
Santhali
Santhali, also known as Santali, had a predominantly oral tradition until the development of the Ol Chiki script in 1925 by Pandit Raghunath Murmu. Ol Chiki is now widely used to write Santhali in India, contributing to its written literary development. Santhali has around 7.3 million native speakers in India, primarily spread across Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura, and West Bengal, indicating its presence across eastern and northeastern India.
Sindhi
Sindhi is spoken natively by over 2.7 million people in India and across the northern Indian Subcontinent. While it is one of India’s 22 scheduled languages, it is unique in that it is not an official language in any Indian state. However, Sindhi is recognized as a medium of study in Indian education and is offered as an optional third language in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
Tamil
Alt text: Tamil script on a temple in Tamil Nadu, India, demonstrating the ancient script used for Tamil.
Tamil, a major language in India, is spoken by over 69 million native Indians. A Dravidian language, it is the official language of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry and a minority language in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Tamil is one of the world’s longest-surviving classical languages, with a remarkable literary history stretching back over two millennia. Its rich literary and cultural heritage makes Tamil a cornerstone of South Indian identity and a significant language in the global Tamil diaspora.
Telugu
Alt text: Telugu script on a sign in Hyderabad, Telangana, India, showcasing the rounded script of Telugu.
Telugu is spoken by 81 million people in India as their mother tongue, primarily in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Puducherry, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is the fourth most natively spoken language in India and one of the few primary languages with official status in more than one state. Telugu is also recognized as a classical language of India, signifying its historical and literary importance.
Urdu
Alt text: Urdu script on a sign in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, illustrating the Perso-Arabic script of Urdu.
Urdu, also known as Lashkari, is a Persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It has 50.7 million native speakers in India and holds official status in Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Delhi. Urdu’s rich literary tradition, particularly in poetry and prose, and its historical association with Mughal culture contribute to its significant cultural presence in India.
Beyond the 22: India’s Vast Linguistic Landscape
While the 22 scheduled languages represent a significant portion of India’s linguistic diversity, they are just the tip of the iceberg. The 2011 Census of India identified a remarkable 270 mother tongues with 10,000 or more speakers each. These include 123 languages categorized under the scheduled languages and a further 147 non-scheduled languages.
These non-scheduled languages encompass a wide spectrum, from languages with relatively small speaker populations, like Gangte (around 16,000 speakers), to major languages with over 10 million speakers, such as Bhili. This vast array of languages highlights the truly multilingual nature of India and the richness of its linguistic heritage.
In terms of primary languages, Hindi leads with 43.63% of Indians speaking it natively. Other languages with significant speaker populations include Bengali (8.03%), Marathi (6.86%), Telugu (6.70%), Tamil (5.70%), Gujarati (4.58%), and Urdu (4.19%). In total, India is home to 60 languages with over a million speakers each, demonstrating the sheer scale of linguistic diversity within the country.
Regional Linguistic Dominance Across India
The linguistic landscape of India varies significantly across different regions. While 96.71% of the population speaks one of the 22 scheduled languages natively, the specific languages prevalent in each region differ greatly.
North India
In North India, Hindi, Punjabi, and Kashmiri are the most commonly spoken languages. This region represents the heartland of Hindi and related Indo-Aryan languages, with significant influence from Persian and Central Asian languages historically.
Northeast India
Northeast India is a linguistic hotspot, home to a cluster of languages including Nepali, Assamese, Manipuri, Bengali, Nissi, Khasi, Mizo, and Ao. This region’s linguistic diversity reflects its complex history, tribal cultures, and geographical location bordering Southeast Asia and the Himalayas.
South India
South India is predominantly Dravidian-speaking, with Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Malayalam being the most prevalent languages. These four languages represent distinct linguistic and cultural identities within the southern part of the country, with long histories and rich literary traditions.
Western India
Western India showcases a mix of Indo-Aryan languages, including Konkani, Gujarati, Marathi, and Bhili. This region’s linguistic character is shaped by its coastal geography, historical trade routes, and cultural interactions with both northern and southern India.
Conclusion: A Land of Many Tongues
India’s linguistic diversity is a defining characteristic of the nation. Asking “What language do they speak in India?” reveals not a single answer, but a multitude of languages coexisting and enriching the cultural fabric of the country. From the official languages of Hindi and English to the 22 scheduled languages and the hundreds of other mother tongues, India’s linguistic landscape is a testament to its long and complex history, its regional variations, and its vibrant multiculturalism. Exploring the languages of India is to embark on a journey through the heart of its diverse and captivating identity.
