Nihilism, at its core, is the philosophical viewpoint that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value. It’s a perspective that suggests that all values are baseless, and nothing can be truly known or communicated. Often associated with profound pessimism and radical skepticism, nihilism can seem to condemn existence itself as ultimately pointless. A complete nihilist might believe in nothing, lack any allegiances, and find no inherent objective other than, perhaps, a destructive impulse. While few philosophers explicitly identify as nihilists, the concept is most strongly linked to Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that nihilism’s corrosive effects would eventually dismantle all moral, religious, and metaphysical convictions, leading to a profound crisis in human history. Throughout the 20th century and into today, nihilistic themes—epistemological uncertainty, the breakdown of values, and a sense of cosmic meaninglessness—have deeply influenced artists, social critics, and philosophers alike. Existentialists in the mid-20th century grappled with nihilism, attempting to mitigate its potentially destructive impact. By the century’s end, the initial existential despair in response to nihilism often shifted towards a more detached indifference, frequently connected to antifoundationalism.
It has been over a century since Nietzsche first delved into nihilism and its extensive implications for civilization. As he keenly predicted, nihilism’s influence on 20th-century culture and values has been widespread. Its ominous undertones have contributed to a pervasive mood of unease, marked by anxiety, anger, and even terror. Intriguingly, Nietzsche himself, a radical skeptic deeply concerned with language, knowledge, and truth, foreshadowed many of postmodernity’s central themes. It’s important to remember that he believed that humanity could eventually overcome nihilism, though at a significant cost. He posited that by enduring the destruction of all current interpretations of the world, we might ultimately discover a more authentic path forward for humankind.
1. Origins of Nihilism
The term “nihilism” originates from the Latin word nihil, meaning “nothing,” or “not anything,” signifying that which does not exist. This root is also found in the verb “annihilate,” which means to bring to nothing or to destroy completely. The term began to gain philosophical traction in the early nineteenth century when Friedrich Jacobi used it to critique transcendental idealism. However, “nihilism” did not become widely recognized until it appeared in Ivan Turgenev’s seminal novel Fathers and Sons (1862). In this work, Turgenev used “nihilism” to describe the stark scientism embraced by his character Bazarov, who advocated a philosophy of total negation.
Alt text: Portrait of Ivan Turgenev, author of Fathers and Sons, key figure in popularizing nihilism.
In Russia, nihilism became associated with a loosely structured revolutionary movement from approximately 1860 to 1917. This movement vehemently rejected the authority of the state, the church, and traditional family structures. The anarchist leader Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876), in his early writings, famously articulated a sentiment that became synonymous with nihilism: “Let us put our trust in the eternal spirit which destroys and annihilates only because it is the unsearchable and eternally creative source of all life—the passion for destruction is also a creative passion!” (Reaction in Germany, 1842). This revolutionary nihilism promoted a societal structure based on rationalism and materialism as the sole sources of knowledge, with individual freedom as the paramount objective. By rejecting the spiritual aspects of humanity in favor of a purely materialistic view, these nihilists denounced God and religious institutions as fundamentally opposed to freedom. Over time, the movement devolved into an ideology of subversion, destruction, and anarchy. By the late 1870s, the term “nihilist” was broadly applied to anyone linked to clandestine political groups advocating terrorism and assassination.
Philosophically, some of the earliest viewpoints that align with a nihilistic outlook can be traced back to the Skeptics of ancient Greece. Because they questioned the very possibility of certainty, Skeptics were able to dismiss traditional truths as merely unjustified opinions. Demosthenes (c. 371-322 BC), for instance, observed that “What he wished to believe, that is what each man believes” (Olynthiac), highlighting the subjective and relational nature of knowledge. Extreme skepticism, therefore, connects to epistemological nihilism, which denies the possibility of attaining genuine knowledge and truth. This form of nihilism resonates with postmodern antifoundationalism. Indeed, nihilism encompasses several distinct forms. Political nihilism, as mentioned, centers on the belief that the destruction of the existing political, social, and religious order is essential for any future progress. Ethical nihilism, also known as moral nihilism, rejects the idea of absolute moral or ethical values. Instead, it posits that concepts of good and evil are vague and that values related to them are simply products of social and emotional conditioning. Existential nihilism is the notion that life itself lacks inherent meaning or value. This is arguably the most prevalent and commonly understood form of nihilism today.
Max Stirner (1806-1856), with his forceful critiques of systematic philosophy, his rejection of absolutes, and his dismissal of abstract concepts, is often considered among the earliest philosophical nihilists. For Stirner, individual freedom is the only true principle, and the state, which inherently threatens this freedom, must be dismantled. Furthermore, Stirner argued that the very existence of others imposes constraints, compromising individual liberty. He famously declared that existence is an unending “war of each against all” (The Ego and its Own, trans. 1907).
2. Friedrich Nietzsche’s Perspective on Nihilism
Friedrich Nietzsche is undeniably the philosopher most closely associated with nihilism. In Nietzsche’s view, the world lacks inherent objective order or structure, except for what humans impose upon it. By penetrating the superficial layers that support our convictions, the nihilist discovers that all values are ultimately without foundation and that reason itself is ultimately powerless. Nietzsche famously wrote, “Every belief, every considering something-true, is necessarily false because there is simply no true world” (Will to Power [notes from 1883-1888]). For him, nihilism demands a radical rejection of all imposed values and meanings: “Nihilism is . . . not only the belief that everything deserves to perish; but one actually puts one’s shoulder to the plough; one destroys” (Will to Power).
Alt text: Portrait of Friedrich Nietzsche, prominent philosopher associated with nihilism.
Nietzsche argued that the destructive power of nihilism is absolute. Under its relentless scrutiny, “the highest values devalue themselves. The aim is lacking, and ‘Why’ finds no answer” (Will to Power). Inevitably, nihilism will expose all cherished beliefs and deeply held truths as merely symptoms of a flawed Western worldview. This collapse of meaning, relevance, and purpose, according to Nietzsche, would be the most devastating force in history, representing a complete assault on reality and nothing less than the greatest crisis for humanity:
What I relate is the history of the next two centuries. I describe what is coming, what can no longer come differently: the advent of nihilism. . . . For some time now our whole European culture has been moving as toward a catastrophe, with a tortured tension that is growing from decade to decade: restlessly, violently, headlong, like a river that wants to reach the end. . . . (Will to Power)
Since Nietzsche’s compelling analysis, nihilistic themes—epistemological failure, value destruction, and cosmic purposelessness—have significantly influenced artists, social critics, and philosophers. Oswald Spengler, deeply convinced of Nietzsche’s accuracy, explored patterns of nihilism across various cultures in his The Decline of the West (1926). Spengler aimed to confirm that nihilism was indeed a prominent characteristic of civilizations in decline. In each culture he studied, Spengler observed that long-standing religious, artistic, and political traditions weakened and eventually crumbled under the insidious influence of several distinct nihilistic attitudes. He categorized these as: the Faustian nihilist who “shatters the ideals”; the Apollinian nihilist who “watches them crumble before his eyes”; and the Indian nihilist who “withdraws from their presence into himself.” Withdrawal, often linked to the negation of reality and resignation advocated by Eastern religions, is mirrored in Western thought by various forms of epicureanism and stoicism. Spengler concluded that Western civilization was already in advanced stages of decay, with all three forms of nihilism working to erode epistemological authority and ontological foundations.
In 1927, Martin Heidegger, another influential philosopher, remarked that nihilism, in various hidden forms, was already “the normal state of man” (The Question of Being). Other philosophers have also made stark predictions about nihilism’s impact. Helmut Thielicke, outlining the symptoms of nihilism in the 20th century, wrote that “Nihilism literally has only one truth to declare, namely, that ultimately Nothingness prevails and the world is meaningless” (Nihilism: Its Origin and Nature, with a Christian Answer, 1969). From a nihilistic viewpoint, life can be seen as entirely amoral, a conclusion that Thielicke believed fueled such atrocities as the Nazi regime. Eugene Rose’s Nihilism: The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age (1994) also paints a grim picture of nihilism’s potential consequences. He argued that if nihilism triumphs—and he believed it was well on its way—our world would become “a cold, inhuman world” where “nothingness, incoherence, and absurdity” would reign supreme.
3. Existential Nihilism: The Meaningless of Existence
While nihilism is frequently discussed in the context of extreme skepticism and relativism, throughout much of the 20th century, it became particularly associated with the belief that life is inherently meaningless. Existential nihilism begins with the fundamental premise that the world lacks inherent meaning or purpose. Given this starting point, existence itself—all actions, suffering, and emotions—is ultimately senseless and devoid of significance.
Alan Pratt, in The Dark Side: Thoughts on the Futility of Life (1994), demonstrates that existential nihilism, in various forms, has been present in the Western intellectual tradition from its beginnings. The Skeptic Empedocles’ observation that “the life of mortals is so mean a thing as to be virtually un-life,” embodies the profound pessimism characteristic of existential nihilism. In antiquity, this profound pessimism perhaps reached its peak with Hegesias of Cyrene. Arguing that miseries far outweigh pleasures, rendering happiness unattainable, Hegesias advocated for suicide as a logical response. Centuries later, during the Renaissance, William Shakespeare eloquently captured the existential nihilist perspective in Macbeth’s famous soliloquy:
Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
And then is heard no more; it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
In the twentieth century, the atheistic existentialist movement, which gained prominence in France during the 1940s and 50s, played a crucial role in popularizing existential nihilism in the public consciousness. Jean-Paul Sartre’s (1905-1980) defining proposition for the movement, “existence precedes essence,” rejects any pre-established ground or foundation for defining an essential self or human nature. According to existentialism, when we shed illusions, life is revealed as fundamentally “nothingness.” For existentialists, this nothingness is not only the source of absolute freedom but also of existential dread and profound emotional anguish. Nothingness reveals each individual as an isolated being “thrown” into a foreign and unresponsive universe, perpetually unable to know the ultimate “why” of their existence yet compelled to create their own meaning. This situation is inherently absurd. Albert Camus (1913-1960), writing from this perspective of the absurd, famously likened Sisyphus’s eternal, futile struggle to human existence itself (The Myth of Sisyphus, 1942).
A central theme in existentialist literature is grappling with the emotional distress that arises from confronting this nothingness. Existentialist thinkers devoted considerable effort to exploring whether it was even possible to overcome this anguish. Their answer was a tentative “yes,” advocating a combination of passionate commitment and stoic resilience. However, in retrospect, their proposed solution often seemed tinged with desperation. In an absurd world, devoid of inherent guidelines, any course of action becomes inherently problematic, and even passionate commitment itself can appear ultimately meaningless. This is where nihilism re-emerges.
Camus, like other existentialists, recognized nihilism as a major challenge of the 20th century. While he passionately argued that individuals could endure its corrosive effects, his most celebrated works often revealed the immense difficulty in constructing a truly convincing case. In The Stranger (1942), for instance, Meursault rejects the comforting illusions that most people rely on. Only moments before his execution for a seemingly random murder, he realizes that life itself is sufficient reason for living—a raison d’être that, within the context of the novel, feels barely convincing. In Caligula (1944), the titular emperor attempts to escape the human condition by embracing inhumanity and senseless violence, only to fail and ultimately orchestrate his own assassination. The Plague (1947) portrays the futility of striving for good in an inherently absurd world. And in his final novel, the brief and cynical The Fall (1956), Camus suggests that everyone has “bloody hands,” implying that we are all complicit in worsening a flawed world through both our actions and our inaction. These works, along with others by existentialist authors, often leave the reader with the impression that authentically living with the perceived meaninglessness of life is, if not impossible, profoundly challenging.
Camus was acutely aware of the dangers of defining existence without inherent meaning. In his philosophical essay The Rebel (1951), he directly confronts the problem of nihilism. He meticulously describes how metaphysical collapse can lead to total negation and the triumph of nihilism, characterized by intense hatred, destructive tendencies, and immense violence and death.
4. Antifoundationalism and the Banalization of Nihilism
By the late 20th century, “nihilism” had taken on a dual character. In one sense, “nihilist” began to describe the postmodern individual: a dehumanized conformist, alienated, indifferent, and confused, channeling psychological energy into self-absorbed hedonism or into a deep ressentiment that can erupt into violence. This interpretation stems from existentialist reflections on nihilism, but stripped of any lingering hope, leaving only the experience of decline, decay, and disintegration.
Donald Crosby, in his study of meaninglessness, suggests that modern nihilism paradoxically arises from a commitment to intellectual honesty and openness. “Once set in motion, the process of questioning could come to but one end, the erosion of conviction and certitude and collapse into despair” (The Specter of the Absurd, 1988). Crosby argues that when sincere inquiry is extended to moral convictions and social consensus, it can become destructive, fostering forces that ultimately undermine civilizations. Michael Novak’s revised The Experience of Nothingness (1968, 1998) echoes this narrative. Both studies respond to the pessimistic conclusions of the existentialists from earlier in the century. And both offer optimistic perspectives on how to emerge from nihilism, focusing on the positive possibilities that “nothingness” can reveal, such as liberty, freedom, and creative potential. Novak, for example, suggests that since World War II, we have been working to “climb out of nihilism” and build a new civilization.
In contrast to these efforts to overcome nihilism, a distinct postmodern response emerged, associated with contemporary antifoundationalism. The philosophical, ethical, and intellectual crisis of nihilism that had tormented modern philosophers for over a century has, in this postmodern context, often given way to a sense of mild irritation or, more surprisingly, a cheerful acceptance of meaninglessness.
French philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard characterizes postmodernism by its “incredulity toward metanarratives”—the overarching foundational stories and systems of belief that we have traditionally used to make sense of the world. This profound skepticism has undermined intellectual and moral hierarchies and cast doubt on “truth” claims, whether transcendental or transcultural. Postmodern antifoundationalists, paradoxically grounded in relativism, view knowledge as relational and “truth” as transient, valid only until a more appealing alternative emerges (reminiscent of William James’s concept of “cash value”). Critic Jacques Derrida, for instance, asserts that we can never be certain that what we know accurately reflects what is. Given that humans experience only a minuscule fraction of reality, we are incapable of grasping anything with absolute certainty, and absolutes themselves are merely “fictional forms.”
American antifoundationalist Richard Rorty makes a similar point: “Nothing grounds our practices, nothing legitimizes them, nothing shows them to be in touch with the way things are” (“From Logic to Language to Play,” 1986). Rorty concludes that this epistemological dead end inevitably leads to nihilism. “Faced with the nonhuman, the nonlinguistic, we no longer have the ability to overcome contingency and pain by appropriation and transformation, but only the ability to recognize contingency and pain” (Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 1989). However, in stark contrast to Nietzsche’s anxieties and the existentialists’ angst, for antifoundationalists, nihilism simply becomes another feature of our contemporary environment—one best endured with a detached coolness, or sang-froid.
Karen Carr, in The Banalization of Nihilism (1992), examines this antifoundationalist response to nihilism. While it still fosters a paralyzing relativism and undermines critical thinking, she observes that “cheerful nihilism” has become prevalent, characterized by a casual acceptance of meaninglessness. Carr argues that this development is deeply concerning. If we accept that all perspectives are equally valid or non-binding, then intellectual and moral arrogance will ultimately dictate which perspectives prevail. Even more troubling, the banalization of nihilism creates a climate where ideas can be imposed through force with minimal resistance, with raw power alone determining intellectual and moral hierarchies. This conclusion aligns closely with Nietzsche’s own, who argued that all interpretations of the world are, at their root, expressions of the will to power.
5. Conclusion: The Enduring Question of Nihilism
More than a century has passed since Nietzsche first explored nihilism and its profound implications for civilization. As he accurately predicted, nihilism has had a pervasive impact on the culture and values of the 20th century, its apocalyptic tone generating a widespread sense of gloom, anxiety, anger, and terror. It is particularly noteworthy that Nietzsche himself, a radical skeptic deeply concerned with language, knowledge, and truth, anticipated many of the central themes of postmodernity. Crucially, Nietzsche believed that humanity could eventually navigate through nihilism, albeit at a considerable cost. He posited that if we could survive the process of dismantling all established interpretations of the world, we might then be able to discover a more authentic and meaningful course for humankind. In his words:
I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism’s] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength. It is possible. . . . (Complete Works Vol. 13)
Author Information
Alan Pratt
Email: [email protected]
Embry-Riddle University
U. S. A.
